Briefing Paper. Climate Change and Air Pollution in Brighton and Hove: A Critical Analysis and Policy Framework

Climate Change and Air Pollution in Brighton and Hove: A Critical Analysis and Policy Framework

Nicky Lumb

Key points

• Air pollution is intrinsically linked to climate change, with common sources and compounding effects.

• Globally, air pollution is the second leading cause of death, surpassing tobacco, and poor diet, but trailing blood pressure.

• While the UK has made progress, many urban areas, including Brighton and Hove, still exceed WHO air quality guidelines. Brighton and Hove faces unique challenges because of its geography, traffic patterns, and socio-economic disparities.

• A multi-faceted policy approach is needed, addressing both immediate air quality improvements and long-term climate change mitigation. 

1. The Nexus of Air Pollution and Climate Change

 Air pollution and climate change are deeply interconnected, sharing common sources, and exacerbating each other's impacts. The burning of fossil fuels is the primary driver of both air pollution and climate change, creating a double burden on human and environmental health.

Key linkages include common sources such as fossil fuel combustion for energy and transport, but also feedback loops: climate change intensifies air pollution through increased temperatures and altered weather patterns. There are also short-lived pollutants, like black carbon, which directly contribute to global warming and air pollution.

The Climate Change Committee, amongst others, recommend integrated strategies that address both issues simultaneously, maximising potential for significant co-benefits.  

2. Global Context: A Leading Cause of Death

Air pollution has emerged as one of the most significant global health risks. The latest State of Global Air study ranks air pollution as the second leading risk factor for mortality worldwide, responsible for approximately 8.81 million deaths annually, with nearly 90% of these linked to noncommunicable diseases such as heart disease, stroke, lung cancer and others. This places it above traditionally recognised risks such as motor vehicle accidents, malnutrition, and alcohol use.

99 % of the global population breathes air exceeding WHO quality limits and the issue disproportionally affects low and middle income areas, whilst ambient and household air pollution causes an estimated 6.7 million premature deaths per year. This does not consider the impact of health issues that result in increased hospitalisation, exacerbation of disease etc. The global economic cost of air pollution is estimated at $8.1 trillion annually.

The WHO guideline limit for fine particulate matter – known as PM₂.₅  – was updated in 2021 in light of accumulated scientific evidence on the dangers of even low levels of air pollution. The guideline limit was reduced from an annual average of 10 micrograms per cubic metre (WHO-10) to 5 micrograms per cubic metre, with WHO-10 now an ‘interim target’. The current UK target is 20 micrograms per cubic metre – four times higher than the new WHO recommendation – and is due to be updated later this year.

There is a growing body of evidence that there is no 'safe level' of air pollution, particularly for vulnerable populations, and the values placed may give an artificial sense of safety. The standards do not fully account for the cumulative effect of long-term exposure to low levels of pollution

3. National Picture: Progress, Persistent and Future Challenges

Figure 1 illustrates the main sources of air pollution. The UK has made significant strides in improving air quality over recent decades, primarily through regulatory measures and technological advance. The UK government has implemented various policies aimed at reducing air pollution, including the Clean Air Strategy 2019 and the Environment Act 2021. These frameworks set ambitious targets for reducing emissions from key sectors such as transport, industry, and residential heating.

 Figure 1

Source: Public Health England, 2018

However, challenges remain in effectively enforcing these regulations at the local level. Despite progress, many UK cities continue to breach legal limits and WHO guidelines, particularly for nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter.

These standards are also based around reducing specific pollutants in high pollution areas, rather than protecting clean areas. This may divert attention from other harmful pollutants that are not yet monitored, as well as give the impression that by meeting individual pollutant standards, the air is clean. The science has moved on considerably since these standards were set, in terms of understanding the negative impact that air pollution has on the human body.

The economic cost of air pollution to the UK is approximately £20 billion annually  - this includes lost productivity, healthcare expenses and reduced quality of life.  An estimated 30,000 deaths in the under-75s in the UK each year are attributed to long-term exposure to air pollution.  There are further health and economic impacts such as reduced birth weight, asthma and lung development in children, heart disease in adults, work days lost and life expectancy (see Figure 2).

Figure 2

Source: Public Health England, 2018

Vulnerable groups (e.g., low-income communities near busy roads) disproportionately suffer from poor air quality. Poor outdoor air quality contributes to poor indoor air quality, particularly of N02 from vehicle emissions.

In addition to the pollutants currently regulated, ultrafine particle concentrations in urban areas typically range from 10,000 to 50,000 particles/cm³ during peak traffic hours which warrants further exploration as these pose significant health risks due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream, yet remain unregulated despite growing evidence of their harm. This will require regulation at a national level to be effective.

4. Brighton and Hove in Context: A Comparative Analysis

Despite eye-catching headlines last year of Brighton & Hove being the worst polluted city in Britain, Brighton and Hove actually performs relatively well overall for regulated pollutants, compared to larger cities, but it still exceeds WHO guidelines for both NO2 (10 µg/m³) and PM₂.₅  (5 µg/m³). It's important to note that while the UK government has committed to setting new targets for PM₂.₅  in line with WHO guidelines, which are based on health risk of specific pollutants, these have not yet been legally implemented.

To contextualize Brighton and Hove's air quality challenges, it is useful to compare the city's pollution levels with other major UK urban areas (Table 1):

Table 1

 Data sources: DEFRA Air Quality Annual Status Reports, 2023; WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines, 2021 2024 Air Quality Annual Status Report, BHCC

5. Brighton and Hove: Progress, and Persistent and Future Challenges

Current Progress

Brighton and Hove City Council has implemented several initiatives to improve air quality, in line with its Air Quality Action Plan. For the first time, recorded NO2 concentrations comply with national legislation and UK air quality standards throughout the city, including in the most polluted hotspots. This is a significant achievement towards the AQAP's target of reducing annual mean NO2 levels. This compliance does needs to be confirmed with sustained monitoring over at least five years and AQMA1 and AQMA3 still require further improvement to meet World Health Organisation interim targets by 2026 (30 µg/m3 annual average).

Based on the 2024 Air Quality Annual Status Report (ASR) for Brighton & Hove City Council (BHCC), the city is making wider progress towards its Air Quality Action Plan (AQAP) targets:

• Increased Air Quality Monitoring: A new (2024) network of air quality monitoring station, including 40 across Brighton and Hove, is now live, which is providing real-time data on PM₂.₅ and NO2 that can be accessed by all residents (Figure 3).

  Figure 3

Source: Brighton and Hove Council Air Quality Portal

• Clean vehicle adoption

• Expansion of cycling infrastructure, including cycle hangers, and plans to expand cycling lanes. Success of the Beryl BTN BikeShare scheme, with over 1 million trips since its launch in 2023, and 60% of the bikes now being new electric bikes.

• Expansion of EV charging points: From the beginning of 2025, the city will have over 500 on-street charge points, including 100 recently installed new lamp column charging points. A £2.8m government grant will allow 500 EV charging points to be installed every year for the next three years.

• Public Transport: The bus-ULEZ continues to show improvements, with North Street recording 35.2 µg/m³ of NO2. Brighton & Hove Buses have a  commitment to a fully zero-emission fleet by 2030. Currently there are 54 Enviro400 ER hybrid electric buses with geo-fenced zero emission electric only operation through the city’s Low Emission Zone, delivering 3,000,000 passenger journeys and 244,000 miles of zero emission bus travel every year. Widening of the Low Emission Zone for buses has been successfully trialled.

• Urban Greening: Whilst an overall commitment to plant 50,000 trees by 2030 was made as part of the 2023-2028 Climate Action Plan - and progress has been made - net gain has been hampered by removals of trees being removed to contain extensive ash dieback.

• Domestic Wood Burning: In Brighton & Hove, wood-burning stoves are a significant contributor to wintertime PM₂.₅ pollution, particularly in residential areas. Monitoring data from similar urban areas suggests that domestic burning can contribute up to 30% of local PM₂.₅ concentrations during peak usage periods. A new approach to solid fuels includes a public awareness Cosy Killer campaign focused on the impact on public health, and an enforcement pilot within the city’s 5 Smoke Control Areas (Figure 4).

  Figure 4

 Source: Smoke Control Areas in Brighton, Brighton And Hove Council

Despite these areas of progress, persistent challenges remain:

• Meeting interim and health WHO targets :

·         With the caveat mentioned above of the limitations of current standards - AQMA1 and AQMA3 still require further improvement to meet the World Health Organization interim target of 30 µg/m³ NO2 annual average by 2026. Some areas, such as Lewes Road Elm Grove (38 µg/m³) and New England Road (37.5 µg/m³), are still above this target. This is still well above the target of 10 µg/m³ as currently recommended by WHO for health.

·         On particulate matter, local monitoring suggests Brighton & Hove is achieving the government's 2040 national target (10 µg/m³) as an annual average for PM₂.₅. This indicates progress towards the AQAP's PM₂.₅  target of 7 µg/m³ by 2027. However, both will still be above WHO recommendations (5 µg/m³). These will be difficult to reach, with the city's narrow streets and high tourist influx exacerbating pollution from vehicle emissions, particularly during peak tourist seasons, and the complications caused by coastal sea breezes. 

• Socio-economic disparities: While citywide air quality is improving, the ASR highlights that improvements are required at roadside locations and AQMA areas in certain areas with socio economic issues, and there is a need to support improvements to air quality and to those most vulnerable in these places. An example is Lewes Rd, which suffers high levels of traffic-related pollution (due to being a major arterial road, with a canyoning effect), and has a high density of lower-income households and a significant student population.

• Domestic heating: Increased use of wood-burning stoves contributes to particulate matter pollution, especially in winter. The poor enforcement of the Cosy Killer campaign may be insufficient but is not an outlier - nationally, no fines were issues for breaches of regulations between 2018 and 2023. The campaign could, however, take opportunities to raise awareness of practical steps, such as the need for dry, seasoned wood, and modern stoves: these may make action more achievable for stove owners.

• Ultra-Fine Particles: Limited monitoring and mitigation strategies for this emerging pollutant of concern - as there is nationally.

• Lack of Clean Air Zone: Unlike cities such as London and Birmingham, Brighton and Hove has not implemented a Clean Air Zone or Low Emission Zone (except the bus-ULEZ) .

6. Policy Recommendations

Whilst Brighton and Hove has made progress, the city needs to take more ambitious steps, particularly in addressing traffic-related pollution, tackling social inequities in air quality, and staying ahead of emerging pollutant concerns like ultra-fine particles. The council should consider more stringent measures such as a Clean Air Zone and accelerate the transition to zero-emission public transport to make meaningful progress in improving air quality for all residents.

Climate:Change has already looked at transport and many of the proposals made, as well as work by BHCC,  overlap with air quality improvements - such as a multi-modal, integrated transport strategy that includes more active travel. Cycle infrastructure, for example, will help to reduce NO2 and PM₂.₅  exposure, which reduces respiratory illness. Reducing the number of vehicles on the road will be a key part of improving air quality, together with the promotion of ultra-low and zero-emission vehicles, as well as reducing congestion and idling.  Whilst recognising the key importance of transport policy in improving air quality, the following recommendations focus on additional policy areas: 

1. Implement a Targeted Clean Air Zone (CAZ) in Key Pollution Hotspots:

Rather than a broad city-wide CAZ, focus on implementing smaller, strategically placed CAZs in areas with the highest pollution levels. This could include:

• The city centre, particularly around North Street, Bus-ULEZ (Figure 5), where traffic congestion remains a major issue.

  Figure 5

Source: Brighton and Hove Council Air Quality Portal

• Locations near schools and healthcare facilities, to protect vulnerable populations, as well as Lewes Road, with its significant number of students and canyoning effect. The boundary of this targeted CAZ should align with the most highly polluted areas, typically roadside locations.

• Recognise the limitations of transport changes  - even as exhaust emissions reduce through transport changes, emissions of non-exhaust particles from friction and abrasion, such as from tyre, brake and road surface wear, and the resuspension of road dust, will continue to be a significant source of PM₂.₅  emission.

2. Tackle Domestic Wood Burning Through Regulation and Education:

• Expand the Smoke Control Areas to cover a larger portion of the city and improve enforcement.

• Increase enforcement of regulations on the sale and use of unapproved fuels, with penalties for non-compliance.

• Further invest in public awareness campaigns highlighting the health risks of wood burning,  particularly in the winter months.

• Provide subsidies to help low-income households switch to cleaner heating alternatives. This could include grants for heat pumps or connection to district heating networks, and a buy-back scheme for older, non- compliant stoves that can emit up to 5 times more PM₂.₅ than newer models.

3. Prioritize Indoor Air Quality:

Recognize that studies show, on average, that indoor pollution levels in houses are higher and more variable than outdoor levels

• Require or incentivise the installation of high-efficiency air filtration systems in new buildings, particularly in areas with high outdoor pollution levels. These filtration systems must be properly maintained and regularly cleaned or replaced to ensure effectiveness.

• Launch public awareness campaigns to educate residents about the importance of ventilation and air purification in homes and offices, possibly also through incorporating air pollution into school curricula.

4. Enhance Air Quality Monitoring and Data Accessibility:

• Increase the density of air quality monitoring stations, particularly in pollution hotspots and near vulnerable populations.

• Conduct regular health impact assessments to quantify the effects of air pollution on residents.

5. Address Socioeconomic Disparities in Air Pollution Exposure:

• Target air quality improvements in areas of deprivation, through green infrastructure investments such as green corridors to improve air flow and pollutant dispersion, as well as  green roofs and walls. Invest in traffic reduction measures, and home energy efficiency programs.

• Provide resources and support to help vulnerable populations reduce their exposure to air pollution, such as free air filters (or even air purifiers for those with respiratory conditions) or assistance with upgrading heating systems.

• Pilot air-purifying technologies in pollution hotspots e.g.

• mobile units that can be used in construction sites, near busy intersections, or during events that generate high levels of air pollution.

• air-purifying street furniture including bus shelters, benches, and other street furniture equipped with air filtration systems that actively remove pollutants from the surrounding air; and

• surface coatings (often paint-like) containing titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles. The coatings can be applied to building facades, road surfaces, and street furniture in pollution hotspots.

• Involve residents in the decision-making process to ensure that air quality policies are equitable and effective.

6. Regional Collaboration and Transboundary Air Pollution:

• Recognize that air pollution does not respect administrative boundaries, and engage further in collaborative efforts with neighbouring local authorities and regional bodies to address transboundary pollution issues. A formal agreement with neighbouring councils would strengthen this collaboration.

• Contribute to and participate in regional air quality monitoring networks and data sharing initiatives.

• Advocate for stronger national and international policies to reduce emissions from sources outside of the city's control.

• Encourage regional transportation planning that prioritizes clean transport options and reduces cross-border pollution.

7. Holistic public health approach on climate and air quality 

·          Aligning with the lower WHO guidelines supports a holistic public health approach, by integrating air quality with climate adaptation (e.g. reducing urban heat islands). To be truly ambitious though, it would be more effective to create an overarching approach on clean air that recognises the limitations of current standards and the growing understanding of the severe impact upon health. This could apply across all policy areas, not limited to transport and energy, but also health, housing, infrastructure and more. Addressing this issue truly holistically is crucial for achieving more substantial and equitable improvements in air quality across Brighton and Hove.

Conclusion

Addressing air pollution in Brighton and Hove requires a multifaceted approach that recognizes the interconnectedness of air quality, climate change, and public health. There is excellent medical and scientific evidence showing the health benefits of addressing this.  Continuous stakeholder engagement is also crucial for successful policy implementation.

By implementing these evidence-based recommendations and fostering collaboration across sectors, Brighton and Hove can significantly improve its air quality, protect public health, contribute towards environmental justice, and contribute to broader climate change mitigation efforts.

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Nicky Lumb is Co-Chair of Climate:Change

Perspective pieces are the responsibility of the authors, and do not commit Climate:Change in any way. Guest posts are published to explore issues or stimulate debate. Comments are welcome.